The advent of the bicycle gave women more freedom to move around. (Wikimedia Commons)

Sidelined in History

Women have participated in sports since ancient times. However, for as long as they have been competing, their participation has been separated, limited, and overlooked by history. For example, as a counterpart to the all-male Olympics, the Ancient Greeks held a tournament only for women: the Heraean Games, in which the only event was a footrace. In Sparta, unmarried women also competed in female-only sports tournaments. There are few references of women competing against men in the Classical Era, and when female victors are recorded, they usually were daughters of wealthy families, suggesting that social class may have afforded opportunities unavailable to most women.

In China, meanwhile, women participated in Cuju, an ancient predecessor to soccer. While Cuju was popularized during the Song dynasty to train soldiers, there are records of all-female professional teams.

Native Americans in the Delaware Valley played a sport similar to football called Pahsahëman, where an all-female team faced an all-male team. While the women and girls were allowed to kick, pass, carry, and run with the ball, as well as tackle their opponents, the men and boys were only allowed to kick the ball and knock it out of their opponents’ hands.

20th Century Strides

“[Bicycling] has done more to emancipate women than anything else in the world,” Susan B. Anthony said. “I stand and rejoice every time I see a woman ride on a wheel… the picture of free, untrammeled womanhood.”

In the late 1800s, the Victorians popularized heavy garments and frail female silhouettes, aided by sheathlike corsets. The impracticality of riding horses sidesaddle, necessitated by both clothing and cultural norms, made it nearly impossible for women to travel long distances alone. When women began riding bicycles, however, they could trade in their cumbersome undergarments for bloomers and looser clothing and start training physically.

Female swimmers compete in the 1912 Olympics. (Wikimedia Commons)

By the 20th century, athletic organizations began to recognize women in sports—most notably, women were allowed to compete in the modern Olympics beginning in 1900. In 1914, the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) started registering female swimmers, and in 1923, it sponsored the first all-female national outdoor track and field event. In 1936, Sally Stearns became the first woman coxswain of a collegiate men’s varsity crew team.

While across the country, new female sports leagues began emerging rapidly, it was much more difficult for African American female athletes to make the same progress. Louise Stokes and Tidye Pickett qualified for the Olympics in 1932 but, because of their race, were not allowed to represent their country until four years later.

Title IX Challenges

Title IX states, “no person shall on the basis of sex, be excluded from participating in, be denied benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational programs or activities receiving federal financial assistance.” It was passed in 1972 in the United States in order to prevent discrimination based on gender in schools that receive federal funds. Title IX legally requires female athletes to receive the same funding and opportunities as their male counterparts.

Despite Title IX, many public institutions still have room for improvement. At least 4,500 public high schools had extremely high gender inequality, according to the National Women’s Law Center, which found that these schools were violating Title IX. To reach the goal of equality, many public schools have responded by cutting male sports programs rather than expanding opportunities for women.

The Fight For Equal Pay Today

Tennis

In 2019, the ten highest-paid female athletes all competed in tennis. Compared to other sports, professional tennis players earn similar amounts in endorsements, regardless of gender. Tennis owes its modern equality to the tireless advocacy of female players like Billie Jean King. King threatened to boycott the U.S. Open in 1973, and in response, it became the first major tournament to pay men and women equally. In 2007, activists including Venus Williams convinced Wimbledon to offer equal prize rewards, the last of the four Grand Slam tournaments to do so. However, tennis does not deserve limitless praise for its progress—outside of Grand Slam tournaments, women’s tournaments often pay far less than men’s.

Soccer

From 2016 to 2018, the U.S. women’s soccer team generated almost $1 million more in revenue than the men’s team. However, their earnings over the same period did not match their male counterparts’. Given 20 friendly games in a year, an elite women’s national team (WNT) player would earn only 89 percent as much as her counterpart on the men’s national team (MNT). U.S. Soccer says some of the pressure in the pay gap stems from the top—the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) provided $30 million total in prize money for the Women’s World Cup in 2019, while the Men’s World Cup in 2018 was granted about $400 million. As a result, the MNT earned $3,000 more per player for a lost game than the WNT earned for a win.

The WNT filed a lawsuit against U.S. Soccer, arguing that gender-based discrimination cost them equivalent wages. U.S. Soccer argued that it required more “skill” and “responsibility” for the men to play. The case will go to trial on May 5.

Ice Hockey

Before 2017, players for the U.S. Women’s National Ice Hockey Team barely made living wages. Despite their successful season, they were not included in Olympic marketing plans. In response, the team pledged to boycott the 2017 International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) World Championships. After U.S.A. Hockey agreed to many of the team’s stipulations, the team earned gold at the World Championships and went on to win its first Olympic gold in 20 years. “We’re passionately pursuing something for the greater good,” said Hilary Knight, an acclaimed forward on the team.

Basketball

Before 2020, the National Basketball Association (NBA) paid players between 49-51 percent of the league’s total revenue. The Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA), meanwhile, paid players a maximum of 22.8 percent. The average salary for a woman in the WNBA was well below that of an entry-level referee for the NBA.

On January 14, the WNBA announced it had reached a new collective bargaining agreement that gives female stars higher pay and more benefits. This contract increases total pay by 53 percent, as well as providing better travel accommodations and paid maternity leave.

On Par For Progress

Megan Rapinoe of the U.S. Women’s National Soccer Team has been outspoken in advocating for equal pay. (Wikimedia Commons)

Women continue to make progress in sports, on and off the field. However, rhetoric surrounding female athletes at times appears to be stuck in past centuries: U.S. Soccer, for instance, tried to argue that “indisputable science” showed women were inferior to men. Today, 40 percent of athletes are women, yet they only receive four percent of all sports coverage. Still, thanks to activism, legislation, and talented female athletes, the situation for women in sports is improving. As more leagues invest in their female athletes, more young women will be inspired to pursue professional careers in sports. And with the 2018 women’s U.S. Open and the FIFA Women’s World Cup both outperforming their male equivalents in U.S. viewership, it seems more likely than ever that women in sports will be granted their fair share.

Compass Gender Women's History Special: A Not-So-Level Playing Field